Welcome to Bible Fiber, where we explore the textures and shades of the biblical tapestry through twelve Minor Prophets, two reformers, and one exile. I’m Shelley Neese, president of The Jerusalem Connection, a Christian organization dedicated to sharing the story of Israel’s people, both ancient and modern. I’m also the author of the Bible Fiber book, a 52-week study of the twelve minor prophets, available on Amazon.
This week, we’re examining Ezekiel 32, the final chapter of eight in his Oracles Against the Nations. This chapter also concludes the series of seven oracles against Egypt. It consists of lamentations for Pharaoh and the Egyptian forces, symbolically depicting their defeat and descent into Sheol.
Sixth oracle
The sixth oracle against Egypt came to Ezekiel on March 3, 585 BCE, two years after the previous oracle and two months after news of Jerusalem’s fall reached the exiles (33:21). By this time, new refugees lived among them in Tel Abib, and they were hearing Ezekiel’s prophecies for the first time. All hope of Egyptian intervention was lost.
Ezekiel raised a final lament for Pharaoh saying, “You consider yourself a lion among the nations, but you are like a dragon in the seas; you thrash about in your streams, trouble the water with your feet, and foul your streams” (32:2). Ezekiel then returned to his earlier imagery of a crocodile or tannim, a mythical sea monster. Yahweh decreed that he, and a throng of people, would capture the sea monster in a net and hurl it into an open field. Exposed to the elements, the creature would die. Perhaps this was Ezekiel’s way of portraying Pharaoh’s exile to a foreign land. Scavenging animals and birds would eat from his massive carcass that overlaid the mountains and filled the valleys with his blood (32:3-4).
When the creature died, God would darken the skies. He said, “All the shining lights of the heavens I will darken above you and put darkness on your land” (32:7). Darkening the sun, moon, and stars was reminiscent of the Exodus, the last time God confronted the pharaoh by displaying his power over all of nature (Ex. 10:21-24). God also vowed that he would wipe out all of Egypt’s livestock (32:13). During the Exodus, the fifth plague God sent on Egypt specifically targeted the animals of Egypt but spared the livestock of the Israelites. According to Ezekiel, so little would survive in Egypt that the Nile River and its channels would have a chance to rest. Without cattle kicking up mud or humans drawing water, the debris would settle, and its streams would run clear as oil (33:14).
Egypt’s downfall would have cataclysmic results. It had been the longest standing power in the region for centuries. Ezekiel described witnesses shuddering with fear, especially neighboring kings. If the mighty Egyptian pharaoh could be overthrown and killed, they feared the certain death that awaited them. Ezekiel once again clarified that the earthly force behind Egypt’s demise would be Nebuchadnezzar (34:11). Unknowingly working on God’s behalf, the Babylonian army would “ruin the pride of Egypt” (34:12).
Seventh Oracle
In his final oracle against Egypt, Ezekiel recited a funeral dirge at Egypt’s graveside with professional female mourners providing the soundtrack (34:16). God commanded Ezekiel, “Wail over the hordes of Egypt and send them down, with Egypt and the daughters of majestic nations, to the world below, with those who go down to the Pit” (32:18). As Pharaoh and his multitude descended to Sheol, Ezekiel asked him who in life compared to him in beauty. Of course, this was a taunt because, where Egypt was headed, beauty and power were useless.
The contrast between Egypt’s beliefs about the afterlife and Ezekiel’s predictions of Egypt’s fate is stark. Egyptians believed in an elaborate afterlife where pharaohs would enjoy eternal life and power. However, Ezekiel’s vision strips away this grandiose expectation, presenting a bleak eternity for the once-mighty ruler.
Repeatedly, Ezekiel told Pharaoh that he would be buried with the uncircumcised and those killed by the sword. Egyptians viewed the uncircumcised as unclean outsiders. Those killed by the sword were probably mercenaries or low-ranking soldiers who died dishonorably. In neither case were they deserving of the type of royal burial and glamourous afterlife that Pharaoh foresaw for himself. The emphasis on circumcision highlights its cultural and religious significance in ancient Near Eastern societies. For the Jews, it was a physical marker of their covenant with Yahweh. For Egyptians, it was high-level hygiene associated with the upper classes.
Ezekiel described a roll call of Sheol’s inhabitants. Past godless nations residing in Sheol come “out of the midst of Sheol” to greet the Pharaoh on his arrival (32:22). They included Assyria, Elam, Meshech-Tubal, Edom, Phoenician cities, and Sidon.
Before it was overthrown by Babylon, the Assyrian Empire was notorious for its military prowess and ruthlessness. The Assyrian army terrorized the region. Elam, with its capital in Susa, was an ancient nation that according to Jeremiah also had an insatiable appetite for military power (Jer. 49:35-39). Meshech-Tubal was a group of raiders from Asia Minor. By including them in the tour of Sheol, Ezekiel acknowledged their earthly reputation for gratuitous violence. Edom, of course, was Israel’s eternal enemy and included in almost every list of cursed nations. The “princes of the North” is a reference to the Phoenician city states. Ezekiel had already established in his previous oracles that Tyre, Sidon, and all the Phoenician cities were guilty of greed and self-exaltation.
What each of the condemned nations had in common is that while on earth, they terrorized the land of the living. The implication is that actions on earth contribute to a person’s experience in the afterlife.
In the depths of the Pit, Ezekiel noted the “fallen warriors of long ago,” the same phrasing used to identify the Nephilim in Genesis 6:4. Descended from sons of God and human daughters, the Nephilim are among the most mysterious and intriguing characters in the Hebrew Bible. The Bible mentions them explicitly only three times: once in Genesis, once in Numbers 13:33, and here in Ezekiel. However, their presence has sparked countless debates and interpretations.
The mention of the Nephilim in this context is significant. They are described as “heroes of old, men of renown,” suggesting a legendary status. Their inclusion in Ezekiel’s vision of Sheol implies that even these mythical figures of great strength and fame were subject to divine judgment.
Ezekiel described Sheol as if it was an oversized funerary shrine, complete with multiple linked chambers. This architectural imagery bears a striking resemblance to the complex tomb structures found in ancient Egypt, such as the Valley of the Kings, or the elaborate burial chambers of Mesopotamian royalty. Each chamber had a bed, a detail that echoes the funerary practices of many ancient cultures where the deceased were often laid out on bed-like structures.
Each leader lay on a bed surrounded by his attendants, as if their hierarchy on earth transferred to the afterlife. This concept of social stratification persisting beyond death was common in many ancient belief systems, including those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh’s court and servants would continue to serve him in the afterlife.
The occupants from every wicked nation all shared the same humiliating fate, consigned to Sheol and buried alongside the uncircumcised and the murdered. Despite their eternal punishment, they seem comforted to be counted among the wicked. Ezekiel’s point was that there was a special place in hell for every violent dictator and his hordes.
Long before Dante Alighieri gave his tour of the nine circles of Hell in “The Divine Comedy,” Ezekiel offered his readers a tour of hell and its occupants. A crowded underworld is a fitting end to Ezekiel’s Oracles Against the Nations. Ezekiel brought together Israel’s historical enemies and oppressors in a single, ignominious fate.
Generally, the Old Testament has much less to say about heaven and hell than the New Testament. Still, Ezekiel drew on the understanding of his time and Israelite theology that the universe was comprised of three tiers. Sheol was the land of the dead, reserved for the wicked. Earth was the land of the living. Heaven was the realm of the divine and the highest layer. The Hebrew scriptures do not reveal much in the way of life after death for the righteous.
Historical Context
The historical context of the Oracles Against the Nations reveals a complex geopolitical landscape in which Jerusalem’s fall was but one significant event among many. Judah’s fate was inextricably linked to the broader regional dynamics. Nebuchadnezzar conducted numerous military campaigns throughout the Levant and beyond during his 43-year reign (605-562 BCE). These campaigns significantly expanded Babylonian control over the region, creating a vast empire that stretched from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Egypt.
Archaeological evidence, including the Babylonian Chronicles and various inscriptions, corroborate the biblical account of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests. The Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle, for instance, details his military exploits in the Levant, including the capture of Jerusalem in 597 BCE. This expansionist policy reshaped the political landscape of the ancient Near East, toppling long-standing powers and redrawing boundaries.
Unlike Israel, who would return from exile and rebuild, the enemy nations addressed in Ezekiel’s oracles had no promised future of restoration. To the rest of the ancient Near East, Israel may have appeared as an insignificant player on the regional stage. However, in the prophetic worldview, Israel occupied a central position in God’s plan for the entire world.
As for Egypt, the historical record presents a more nuanced picture than the total devastation prophesied by Ezekiel. External evidence for a full-scale Babylonian military attack on Egypt during Ezekiel’s lifetime is lacking. However, there is some indication that the Babylonian army did conduct a campaign against Egypt approximately 19 years after Jerusalem’s fall. The Babylonian Chronicle suggests that Nebuchadnezzar led an expedition against Egypt in his 37th regnal year (568-567 BCE). The extent and outcome of this campaign remain debated among historians.
Ezekiel’s reference to Egypt’s fall at the hands of Babylon and “other barbarous nations” (30:10) can be interpreted as a broader prophecy encompassing the coming centuries of foreign occupation of Pharaoh’s land. Following the Babylonian period, Egypt was dominated by a series of Persian and Greek rulers for centuries. This succession of foreign dominations aligns with the prophet’s vision of Egypt’s permanently diminished status and loss of autonomy.
Babylonian Omission
Although the nations listed in the Oracles Against the Nations may seem random, there is one intriguing omission. Ezekiel never pronounced a curse on Babylon, the empire that bore responsibility for Judah’s fall and the exiles captivity. While he called for God to eradicate the Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites for gloating over Jerusalem’s hardship, he was completely silent on Babylon, the attacking army. Perhaps the reason was because Ezekiel lived in Babylon. He had less freedom in speaking openly against his captors while Jeremiah was at a safe distance.
Another explanation for this absence is that Ezekiel’s oracles often served a dual purpose: delivering judgment while also providing hope for restoration. Babylon, as the immediate instrument of divine judgment against Judah, was perceived as serving God’s purpose. Addressing a curse against Babylon at that time might have conflicted with the message that Babylon was an agent used by God to enact his will upon a people who had strayed. Furthermore, since Ezekiel prophesied during the Babylonian exile, his primary focus might have been on encouraging the Israelites to understand their situation as part of a divine plan, rather than directly condemning the oppressors who were acting under divine sanction.
Recognition Formula
When God allowed Jerusalem to be destroyed, the surrounding nations deduced that their own local deities were more powerful than the God of Israel. Witnessing Israel’s apparent helplessness at the hands of the Babylonians, these foreign powers interpreted Yahweh’s defeat as a sign of his own weakness and impotence. However, Ezekiel’s Oracles Against the Nations show the opposite to be true. Through these scathing prophecies, the prophet asserts that God is in control of all history, not only the affairs of Judah.
Ezekiel wanted his audience, both Israelite exiles and the surrounding nations, to understand that Jerusalem’s defeat was not a defeat of Yahweh himself. Despite the destruction of the earthly throne in Jerusalem, God still stood supreme on his heavenly throne, sovereign over all creation.
Nineteen times throughout the Oracles Against the Nations, Ezekiel repeats a pivotal “recognition formula,” in which he declares that the intended outcome of Judah’s punishment, as well as the judgment on every other nation, was for the whole earth to recognize Yahweh’s unparalleled sovereignty. The overarching message is that God asserts his dominion over human affairs so that all nations and peoples will come to acknowledge him as the one true God. As Ezekiel states, “When I make the land of Egypt desolate and when the land is stripped of all that fills it, when I strike down all who live in it, then they shall know that I am the Lord” (32:15).
Ezekiel does not elaborate extensively on what this universal recognition of Yahweh would entail. However, the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah promise that the nations would be invited to join God’s people if they repented and worshipped Yahweh alone (Isa. 19:23-25, Jer.12:14-17). This expansive, inclusive theology foreshadows the global mission that would later become central to the message of Christianity.
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Shabbat Shalom and Am Israel Chai