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Welcome to Bible Fiber! Here, we explore the rich textures and shades of the biblical tapestry through the lens of twelve Minor Prophets, two reformers, and one exile. I am Shelley Neese, president of The Jerusalem Connection, a Christian organization dedicated to sharing the story of the people of Israel, both ancient and modern. If you have had a chance to start reading the new Bible Fiber book, please consider going to Amazon and leaving a review! This week, we are diving into Ezekiel 25.
In the wake of the tragic loss of Ezekiel’s wife, the prophet at least found solace in the promise that God would soon lift the restrictions on his speech. God instructed Ezekiel to keep an eye out for a refugee from Jerusalem who would bring news of the city’s fall (Ezekiel 24:27). This event unfolds in Chapter 33 and suddenly Ezekiel could speak freely.
However, there was a significant delay: it took at least 18 months from the death of Ezekiel’s wife until the Babylonian siege began and the eventual attack on Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:1-3; Jeremiah 52:4-6). As the siege progressed, anxiety mounted among the exiled Israelites, particularly those who believed in Ezekiel’s prophecies. While they awaited news from Jerusalem, God shifted his focus from prophesying against Judah to addressing the neighboring enemies. The subsequent eight chapters are known as the Oracles Against the Nations (OAN), starting with a series of brief oracles against Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia. Tyre and Egypt receive the majority of the prophet’s attention through more extensive oracles filled with metaphors and analogies pointing toward their impending doom.
These oracles serve to remind the exiled Israelites that their fate is intertwined with the larger context of divine judgment and justice. They are both a warning and a reassurance that God is in control, even amid turmoil and uncertainty.
The genre
Extended prophecies against the nations are a common genre in biblical prophetic literature, appearing in several prophetic books with variations in extent and arrangement. Amos’s Oracles Against the Nations (OAN) are most similar to Ezekiel’s in style (Amos 1-2). Jeremiah’s OAN also serves as an important point of comparison, given that the two prophets were contemporaries (Jeremiah 46-51). Zephaniah includes his OAN in the middle of his book, like Ezekiel (Zephaniah 2), while Isaiah features a lengthy OAN that Ezekiel, as his successor, likely would have known (Isaiah 13-23). Some prophetic books contain elements of OAN without dedicating entire sections to them. In contrast, Obadiah and Nahum are entire books composed of prophecies against foreign nations.
Ezekiel 25 delivers four mini-oracles targeting Judah’s closest neighbors, which are also her longest standing enemies: Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia. Israel had been at odds with these four nations for most of its existence. Scholars generally date these oracles to shortly after the Babylonian attack in 586 BCE, given that Jerusalem’s suffering serves as the backdrop for each prophecy.
Ammon
First, God instructed Ezekiel to “set his face” toward Ammon, a phrase he used repeatedly when Ezekiel prophesied against Jerusalem. This command appeared when Ezekiel was told to “set his face” against Israel’s mountains (6:2), the female sorcerers in the camp (13:17), and even the defiled temple (21:2).
God had a specific message for the Ammonites: “Because you said, ‘Aha!’ over my sanctuary when it was profaned, over the land of Israel when it was made desolate, and over the house of Judah when it went into exile, therefore I am handing you over to the people of the East for a possession” (25:4).
In Chapter 25, all of Jerusalem’s neighbors share the same guilt; they gloated over Jerusalem’s destruction. God despised their lack of empathy. Although he was the force behind the Babylonian attack, he did not tolerate taunting from other nations.
In the “sword song” of Chapter 21, Ezekiel illustrated Nebuchadnezzar’s dilemma at a crossroads, contemplating whether to attack Jerusalem or Ammon (21:18-27). Prompted by Yahweh, the Babylonians chose to attack Jerusalem first. While Ammon may have escaped the initial assault, Ezekiel foretold that their time would come (21:28-29). Chapter 25 provides details about Ammon’s impending devastation, stating that the “People of the East” would overrun them. Scholars debate the identity of the “People of the East”; it could refer to the Babylonians, but the description of invaders pitching their tents in Ammonite territory suggests Arabian nomadic tribes. After the Ammonites are captured and scattered, Rabbah would be reduced to pastureland for camels and sheep (25:5). The squatters will consume their produce and milk their livestock (25:4).
According to the historian Josephus, Ezekiel’s prediction was fulfilled in 582 BCE. A few years after the fall of Jerusalem, Ammon fell victim to Babylon’s military expansion. Under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership, the Babylonian forces conquered Rabbah, ending Ammonite independence and incorporating the territory into the Babylonian Empire.
Like all Judeans, Ezekiel bore a grudge against Ammon, and the feeling was mutual. Though the oracle came from the Lord, Ezekiel had no qualms about declaring Ammon’s total annihilation, stating, “I will cut you off from the peoples and will make you perish out of the countries” (25:7).
Moab
The next nation on Ezekiel’s blacklist was Moab, Judah’s neighbor located east of the Dead Sea. Both Ammon and Moab share a troubling ancestry. Following the catastrophic destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot and his two daughters sought refuge in a cave, believing they were the last survivors on Earth. In a desperate attempt to preserve their family lineage, the daughters engaged in incestuous relations with their father, leading to the birth of Moab by Lot’s oldest daughter. The Ammonites, on the other hand, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot’s younger daughter. When referring to the Ammonites, Ezekiel specifically uses the name Ben-Ammi, subtly reminding his audience of their sordid origins.
Despite their shared lineage, the Israelites viewed the Moabites and Ammonites with a mix of kinship and resentment due to their actions. Moses attempted to honor familial ties when the Israelites first encountered these nations during their wilderness years, with God instructing Moses to regard them as potential allies. However, the Ammonites and Moabites refused to provide food and water to the Israelites during their journey (Deuteronomy 23:3-4). This lack of hospitality was considered a serious offense, particularly from relatives. The situation worsened when the Moabite King Balak hired the prophet Balaam to curse the Israelites (Numbers 22-24), and the Moabite women seduced Israelite men into idolatry (Numbers 25:1-9). As a result of their treachery, Yahweh excluded the Ammonites and Moabites from the Lord’s assembly for ten generations (Deuteronomy 23:3-6).
Ezekiel’s oracle against Moab echoes the ancient curses pronounced against them during the days of Moses. He prophesied, “Because Moab said, ‘The house of Judah is like all the other nations,’ therefore I will lay open the flank of Moab from the towns on its frontier” (25:8). While the Moabites, like the Ammonites, rejoiced over Judah’s public humiliation, their glee appeared more subdued; Ezekiel does not describe them as celebrating with as much fervor.
Moab had mocked Judah’s belief in its divine election. God equated such mockery with an insult to God himself. By declaring Judah to be no different from other nations, they undermined the covenant relationship established by Yahweh. The Moabite King Balak similarly denied Israel’s uniqueness (Numbers 22:2-24).
As punishment for their blasphemy, God declared that he would destroy Moab’s fortified cities, leaving the nation vulnerable to attacks from the “peoples of the East” (25:10). Nebuchadnezzar’s forces overtook Moab in 582 BCE, the same year they conquered Ammon, marking the end of Ammon and Moab’s independence as distinct kingdoms. A combination of conquests by neighboring powers and forced assimilation ultimately erased them from history.
Edom
Ezekiel next turned his attention to Moab’s closest ally, Edom, whose people descended from Esau, the twin brother of Jacob. Located southeast of Israel, Edom maintained a tumultuous relationship with its neighbor. In fact, the Edomites are mentioned in the Bible more frequently than any other foreign nation, except for Egypt.
Each mini-oracle that Ezekiel delivered followed a consistent structure: he addressed the nation, identified their crime, and outlined their punishment. With the destruction of each nation, Yahweh declared, “then you shall know that I am the Lord” (25:7, 11, 17). This refrain underscores God’s purpose in disciplining them. Like Jerusalem, it is in their moments of greatest tragedy that they would come to recognize their mistake in questioning Yahweh’s sovereignty. God desires for all of humanity to know him, revealing his power not only as an act of vengeance but also as a demonstration of his sovereignty.
Edom, however, presents an exception. To the Edomites, God proclaimed, “they shall know my vengeance” (25:14). As descendants of the disinherited brother, the Edomites were already aware of Yahweh’s lordship, even if they had strayed from their faith heritage.
While Ammon and Moab reveled in Jerusalem’s misfortunes, Edom actively took advantage of Jerusalem’s vulnerability. All biblical accounts point to Edom’s treachery during the Babylonian attack. The Psalmist recounts how Edom mocked Jerusalem on the day of its destruction (Psalm 137:7). Obadiah condemned Edom for joining the fray, pillaging Jerusalem and capturing fleeing refugees to hand over to the Babylonians (Obadiah 11-14). Archaeological evidence further indicates that Edom prospered and extended its reach into Judean territory after Nebuchadnezzar deported the city’s Jewish population. Amos also charged Edom with war crimes, as they pursued Jewish refugees with a sword and slaughtered women (Amos 1:11-12). God had ample justification for punishing Edom.
God told Ezekiel, “Because Edom acted revengefully against the house of Judah and has grievously offended in taking vengeance upon them, thus says the Lord God: I will stretch out my hand against Edom and cut off from it humans and animals, and I will make it desolate” (25:13). God planned to utterly flatten Edom, a nation that prided itself on its natural fortifications. Despite their mountainous stronghold, they could not escape divine judgment.
Unlike the other nations, where God employed foreign agents to execute his wrath, Edom’s punishment would come directly from Israel. God stated, “I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel” (25:14). Ezekiel delivered this prophecy to an Israelite audience that was weak and vulnerable, lacking a standing army or monarchy at the time. This raised the question: how could an exiled Israelite people enact revenge on Edom? In fact, Ezekiel’s prediction regarding Edom took centuries to fulfill. Starting in the third century BCE, the Nabateans, nomadic Arab traders, began to expand into the traditional homelands of the Edomites.
By the Hellenistic period (332-63 BCE), many displaced Edomites had resettled in the southern part of Judah, an area that came to be known as Idumea (the Greek form of Edom). When the Maccabees rose to power, they sought to eliminate the Edomite presence in Judah. John Hyrcanus I launched a military campaign against this ancient enemy, aiming to seal the fate of the Edomites by implementing a policy of forced conversion. The Idumeans faced a choice between converting to Judaism or expulsion. This episode is unusual in Jewish history, as Judaism generally does not support proselytization, let alone forced conversion. Nevertheless, many biblical scholars view the Maccabees’ actions as fulfilling Ezekiel’s prophecy that Edom would fall by Israel’s own hand (25:14).
Philistia
The last mini-oracle addresses the Philistines, whom Ezekiel labels as Israel’s eternal enemy, despite their lack of kinship. The origin of the Philistines is complex, with scholars debating whether they came from Greece, the Aegean islands, Anatolia, Syria, Cyprus, or even the Balkans. By the twelfth century BCE, they settled in the southern coastal region of ancient Canaan, forming a confederation of five cities: Gath, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Ashdod. Today, these territories largely correspond to the Gaza Strip and coastal Israel.
God declared regarding the Philistines, “Because with unending hostilities they acted in vengeance and with malice of heart took revenge in destruction, therefore thus says the Lord God: I will stretch out my hand against the Philistines” (25:15). According to this passage, the Philistines reveled in Jerusalem’s downfall. Interestingly, apart from Ezekiel, no other biblical passages record the Philistines’ reactions during the Babylonian attack. However, it is plausible that they would join the fray and take pleasure in the destruction.
Among Israel’s enemy nations, the Philistines are the most familiar to readers, thanks to famous stories such as David and Goliath and Samson and Delilah. During the conquest, Joshua did not defeat the Philistine cities, which meant the Israelites had to coexist with them (Joshua 13). The book of Judges notes that the Philistines remained in Canaan to test the Israelites’ faithfulness to God and their covenant (Judges 3:2). In the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel, the Philistines appear as the dominant foreign adversary.
During the period of the Judges, God used the Philistines as instruments of punishment when the Israelites turned away from him. When the Israelites fell into idolatry and other sinful behaviors, God permitted the Philistines, alongside other neighboring groups, to oppress them. Each time the Israelites repented and turned back to God, he sent a charismatic judge to deliver them from oppression. One notable judge, Shamgar, defeated 600 Philistines with an ox goad (Judges 3:31). However, it was Samson who played a critical role in delivering the Israelites from the Philistines, even as he had a weakness for Philistine women (Judges 13:5).
The Philistines posed the greatest threat to Israel during the reigns of Saul and David. Saul was frequently in conflict with the Philistine army, with one of the most memorable encounters being David’s defeat of the giant Goliath using only stones and a sling. Ultimately, Saul suffered wounds in battle against the Philistines and chose to fall on his sword to avoid capture (1 Samuel 31).
David’s initial popularity arose from his success against the Philistines in battle as a youth. The people famously chanted, “Saul has killed his thousands, and David his ten thousands” (1 Samuel 18:7). As King, David sought God’s guidance and bravely took on the Philistine army, achieving victories at Baal-perazim and the Valley of Rephaim (2 Samuel 5:17-25). In both battles, David consulted the Lord, following divine instructions for victory. Although David never completely eradicated the Philistine threat, their significance in the biblical narrative diminished, shifting them from Israel’s primary enemy to a persistent nuisance.
By the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s military campaign through the Levant, the decline of the Philistines was already apparent. They had been subjugated by both Assyria and Egypt. In 598 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Ashkelon, a former Philistine stronghold. After this conquest, the Philistines lost their identity as a political and cultural group, with only the fortified city of Gaza surviving the Babylonian destruction. When Alexander the Great advanced on Gaza in 322 BCE, the Philistines mounted a valiant defense against his siege engines, even managing to wound Alexander. Ultimately, however, Gaza could not withstand the combined naval and land assault, leading to the extinction of Philistine civilization as a distinct entity.
Given the Philistines’ weakened state even before Ezekiel’s time, he included the Cherethites in his prophecy. The Cherethites were another group of Sea Peoples, likely from Crete, closely associated with Philistine warriors. God promised to eliminate all the Sea Peoples and the entire coastline of Philistia (25:16). In the context of our current situation post-October 7th, the fighting forces in the IDF draw upon this ancient promise as they confront Israel’s enemies in Gaza.
Like the nations
Ezekiel dedicated twenty chapters to delivering oracles that focused on Israel’s crimes and the impending punishment that awaited her. By the time readers reach the Oracles Against the Nations, Ezekiel’s language of condemnation has become familiar. These prophecies against the nations mirror his earlier words directed at Judah. By addressing Israel as if she were an enemy nation, Ezekiel aimed to provoke genuine repentance. Once Israel faced the consequences of her unfaithfulness, God, like a disciplining parent, shifted his tone.
It was only after Judah was broken and bruised that God changed his approach. God did not intend to concentrate solely on Judah’s sin while letting the rest of humanity evade judgment. Instead, he holds all people accountable for their moral and ethical actions and will bring judgment upon everyone. The prophet Isaiah proclaimed, “It is he who sits above the circle of the earth, and its inhabitants are like grasshoppers; who stretches out the heavens like a curtain and spreads them like a tent to live in, who brings princes to naught and makes the rulers of the earth as nothing” (Isaiah 40:22-23). Nothing escapes God’s observation—he sees everything and will judge all, even those who try to hide away in subterranean tunnels.
Conclusion
That’s it for Ezekiel 25. Thank you for listening and please continue to take part in this Bible Reading Challenge. Join me next week for Ezekiel 26. The Phoenician port city of Tyre is on deck for God’s judgement. Please keep modern Israel and Jerusalem in your prayers. Pray for the peace of Jerusalem and her people as she feels more alone and isolated than ever on the world stage.
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Shabbat Shalom and Am Israel Chai